EPQ: Eco-Brutalism & The Barbican Estate

Abstract

I chose my Extended Project Qualification to be about The Barbican Estate as it:

• follows my current interest in architecture which I would like a future career in

• supports my chosen A-level subjects of Maths, Geography and 3D Design

• and I find The Barbican area fascinating and something that I am invested in both researching and visiting due to its unique nature.

Introduction

The Barbican - a redevelopment of a formerly deprived area. Its concrete structure holds the style of both brutalist and eco-brutalist styles of architecture which, in this project, I am going to examine the impacts this type of architecture has had socially on The Barbican’s residents and those who experience this redevelopment. I wish to shine a light on the role of the architecture on the landscape and surrounding area as well as the effect it has had on both the living conditions and overall well-being of the residents. Furthermore, I would like to reach a conclusion on whether the positives outweigh the negatives to then decide if future projects should take inspiration from this type of regeneration. The key word ‘regenerate’ implies that it involves strategies to improve an area - but has it been all positive? This is something that I want to determine. 

Why did I choose this topic? Mainly, due to my current love for architecture and how buildings can change the perception of an area to then encourage a new life for those involved as it produces an opportunity. I want to develop a career in architecture so this research will also provide me with a greater understanding for this field of work. I think that it is an interesting contemporary topic and many people are not really aware of what impacts architecture can have on an area in terms of improving well-being and other social changes. However, buildings are subjective so to design something for a large number of people is a difficult task considering “The Barbican was built for a population of 6,000 residents” (Concrete Oslo 2018). For some it might bring joy but others might be distraught by the changes so how have the developers of the regeneration leapt over this obstacle? 

Furthermore, I find The Barbican a place of interest as the eco-brutalist architecture provides contrast between a large range of greenery, and an aggressive, potentially considered dull style of building. Brutalism is a style following after World War II and it has an emphasis on texture, materials and construction which produces highly expressive forms usually made out of concrete. Whereas, eco-brutalism consists of a mixture of the brutalism style but including greenery. This is linked to sustainability of an area due to it improving the ecological footprint. 

In order to find the answer to my research question, I will need to look at both the physical impacts and the human impacts which ties into my geographical skills. I want to briefly research the visual aspects of the regeneration and potentially include the use of primary photographs. Then go on to look at the psychological impacts of the project by getting a greater understanding of the living conditions and overall well-being of all parties involved in the area; so both residents and visitors. This is where previous research has found gaps as it looks at only the aesthetic aspects and economic results of the area but don’t you think that the people’s voices matter most? To conclude, I want to develop an understanding, by the end of my project, in order to make a decision about whether or not other developments like this should be constructed and how effective it actually was from all viewpoints.

Methodology

My survey consisted of three multiple choice questions and seven questions with a likert scale response. The aim was to conduct the survey with around 10 visitors or residents of The Barbican Estate on the premises on 8th June 2024 between 11:00 and 16:00. A visitor was defined as a person who was in The Barbican Estate on the day of questioning. Participants were given as long as they needed to fill in the survey, and 12 people responded. Because not all surveys were completed, 10 results were included in the analysis.

Before analysis of the quantitative dataset was checked for any missing data, I could have also applied the “outlier labelling rule” to discard any values that were calculated outside of the range (Hoaglin & Iglewicz 1987). However, this was not necessary as I wanted to compare all data values. Before the analysis of my qualitative data, I categorised my responses into patterns and themes by interpreting the language collected.

My objective for my primary research was to get a greater understanding of the social changes of The Barbican and the impacts it has had on people’s well-being and living conditions of the residents and people visiting The Barbican Estate. This was because all of the secondary sources I found focused mostly on the physical changes that occurred due to the regeneration of The Estate. I chose to use qualitative data because it meant that people could use literature to explain their subjective experiences and ideas relating to my research.

Analysis

My first finding was that none of the people that I was able to question were residents of The Estate but instead were all visitors. This meant that I needed to use secondary sources later on to gain the perspective and response of the residents. I believe that this may have been because I used a random sampling technique and my location within The Barbican was a hotspot for tourists which may have led to bias in my responses. 

My next key finding was that 80% of the people that I surveyed travelled from within Greater London which then meant that the average travel time was only between 30-60 minutes. However, there was one anomaly that had visited from Rennes, France, but their visit was not specifically to visit The Barbican but rather was recommended to visit from a friend in the UK as they were on holiday as a tourist in London. 

Furthermore, everyone that I surveyed was aged between 16-64 which shows that the majority of visitors are adults. This compliments findings that the majority of the people surveyed were from Greater London as census data shows that 79.2% of London’s population is aged between 16-64.

This is a word cloud that I generated from the qualitative data. The question was “one word to describe The Barbican’s architecture.” As you can see from the image, the most common word was Brutalist which shows people’s knowledge of the architecture type of the area as well as demonstrate how well-known it is for this style. It is also evident that it was described using words such as concrete, urban and geometric which all link towards my secondary research of the design process and construction of The Barbican.

My next question asked those surveyed to “describe how their visit made them feel in one word.” A common word used was ‘Engaged’ which may have been influenced by the activity that they were doing as multiple people went to conduct their own research or to work and others were there for one of the activities that The Barbican has to offer in terms of entertainment including the art exhibition and cinema. Another key word used was ‘Calm’ which I believe could be influenced by the inclusion of nature and water features due to the eco- Brutalist style. Although, overall, the satisfaction rate for these visitors was high because all of the participants explained that they were either satisfied or very satisfied with their visit.

Literature Review

What Is Brutalist Architecture?

According to the Royal Institution of British Architecture (RIBA) website, the definition of Brutalism is:

“...a style with an emphasis on materials, textures and construction, producing highly expressive forms.” 

According to the source Concrete Poetry by The Critics newspaper published in February 2012, Brutalist is:

“...from the French béton brut, or raw concrete”.

What Is Eco-Brutalist Architecture?

Jay Scotts explains on its website:

“In essence, eco-brutalism is a mix of brutalist style and greenery. Eco-brutalism is a combination of austerity and life, creating stunning spaces that celebrate life while still having a brutalist backdrop. It is linked to sustainability, as adding greenery improves their ecological footprint.”

By using these definitions, brutalist and eco-brutalist architecture are the construction of buildings made of materials like concrete which produce highly-expressive forms, for example, very angular buildings with sharp corners or edges. However, the use of eco-brutalist architecture also includes the use of plantlife to provide greenery and make an area that could be seen as dull more colourful. It also reduces the carbon and ecological footprint of an area.

What Caused The Creation Of The Barbican Estate?

The Barbican Estate was established due to numerous factors affecting central London after World War II. These factors included the destruction of previous buildings during World War II, as well as a housing shortage as London's population continued to grow even though housing was less readily available. Due to the housing shortage, this led, in turn, to an increase in house prices - simple supply and demand. Supply refers to the quantity of products that the producer is willing to - and able to - sell. In this case, it would be the number of houses or flats in an area. Whereas, demand refers to the quantity of goods and services a consumer is willing to buy which would be the number of housing units wanted by the population of an area. From my sources, I found that there is a general conclusion that “The complex was developed in order to establish a permanent population both living and working in this central area of London.” (Robin Hood Gardens, 2011). This is important because, in order for a population to be working in central London, the location of the property must be commutable meaning not only does the location need to be close but also needs to have a great proximity to transport. With these core ideas in mind, there was an initial aim set in place to be able to house “4,000 residents” as stated by The Barbican website.

The Barbican was designed during the late 1950s to 1970s. However, I want to research how it has held up nearly 60 years later and whether this regeneration has stayed relevant throughout that time. I have done this in my research by getting the opinions of the residents currently living there as well as the numerous people that pass through The Barbican every day.

Where Is The Barbican Located?

After gaining a Bird’s-eye view of The Barbican from Google Maps, I understand that it is located in central London and only 2.2km North-East of Charing Cross. It is in the London Borough of Southwark which also includes other London landmarks  such as St. Paul's Cathedral, the Shard, Big Ben and the Tower of London. This means that the area gains large amounts of attraction due to it being one of the main tourist destinations within London which means more visitors for the area as it is another place of interest that they might want to visit. It is also close to the financial district so it is accessible for workers.

I found that, when visiting, it is an easy destination to get to due to it having four main train and tube stations within a 10 minute walk of the main area; these are Barbican, Moorgate, Farringdon and St Paul's. There are multiple trains to these stations as well as tube lines. Some of these tube lines include Hammersmith & City, Central, Circle, Northern and the Elizabeth Line. With this large amount of infrastructure available, The Barbican is a fast and easy location to travel to from anywhere across London, which benefits both visitors and residents travelling both to and from it.

What Inspired The Design?

The architects Peter Chamberlin, Geoffry Powell and Christof Bon designed this tough concrete urban environment that cost “£161m - that’s equivalent to about £500m today.” (Barbican website updated in 2024). One of the inspirations that I gathered is that the Estate reflects the principles of modernist architecture, which emerged in the early 20th century. Modernist architects aimed to create functional, efficient, and aesthetically pleasing buildings by incorporating innovative construction techniques and materials. RIBA states modernism as “The style became characterised by an emphasis on volume, asymmetrical compositions, and minimal ornamentation.” This changed ideas of what architecture was as it can be seen as an analytical approach to functional buildings meaning everything did not have to have a purpose other than aesthetics. This will be evident in my later visual analysis and written discussion of The Barbican.

Furthermore, it is often associated with Brutalism; a style of architecture which I mentioned earlier which is characterised by its use of raw concrete, geometric forms, and a focus on functionality. The Barbican's concrete towers and elevated walkways exemplify Brutalist design principles. An example of a Brutalist building constructed before The Barbican Estate is the Unité d'Habitation in Marseille, France. It was designed by the Swiss-French architect Le Corbusier and completed in 1952. This contrasts with modernism as most of the brutalism remains as functional with tall towers that mean that there can be a greater population density and walkways that mean it is easier to travel within other areas of The Estate.

Another reason for the design was urban renewal as The Barbican Estate was built in the 1960s and 1970s as part of a broader urban renewal project in London. The area had been heavily bombed during World War II. Before World War II, the area now occupied by The Barbican Estate, was a densely populated neighbourhood with a mix of residential, commercial, and industrial buildings. Known as Cripplegate, it was a vibrant district featuring narrow streets, warehouses, factories, and working-class housing. The word comes from the “Anglo-Saxon "cruplegate", which means a covered way or tunnel.” (City of London website updated in 2024). The post-war redevelopment aimed to provide modern, high-density housing and amenities in a mixed-use environment. This meant that it needed to be able to be functional for a large group of people in order to have harmony within a community. The vision for this was that it was designed as a self-contained community for private housing, with residential apartments, commercial spaces, cultural facilities (such as The Barbican Centre), and green spaces integrated within the complex which is where it can be seen as eco-brutalist. This reflects a vision for urban living that prioritises convenience, accessibility, and a sense of community.

Furthermore, the ‘Garden City Movement’, a 20th century urban planning movement surrounding the central city that was gaining popularity, incorporated green spaces and landscaping within The Barbican Estate. It promoted the idea of integrating nature into urban environments to improve residents' quality of life. "The Garden City is a town designed for healthy living and industry; of a size that makes possible a full measure of social life, but not larger; surrounded by a rural belt; the whole of the land being in public ownership or held in trust for the community." (Garden Cities of To-Morrow 1898). This highlights the desired balance of urban and rural elements even before the construction of The Barbican. 

There are also high-rise towers, as seen by my visual aids further on, that represent the need for dense urban housing in London. By building upwards, the architects aimed to maximise the use of limited space while also providing residents and then visitors with panoramic views of the city. The design of The Barbican Estate was influenced by the cultural context of post-World War Britain which included a desire to create modern, forward-thinking spaces that would contribute to the city's regeneration and cultural identity. It was designed with the “values such as authenticity, individuality, neighborliness, convenience, and tranquility.” (Middle-Class Castle 2013).

Discussion

How Has The Barbican Changed Physically?

The Barbican Estate has undergone significant visual transformations from its pre-construction through to its development and then to its present state. Here is an overview of its visual changes throughout:

Before Construction (Pre-1960s)

For historical context, before The Barbican Estate was designed, the area was heavily bombed during World War II particularly in the Blitz of 1940-41. This left most of the area in a ruined state which characterised it with destroyed buildings and rubble. The pre-construction landscape was a mix of war-torn structures, rubble from warehouses, and industrial buildings, creating a desolate urban wasteland.

Construction Phase (1960s - 1970s)

The planning for The Barbican began in the 1950s where the site was cleared of war debris, with large areas of empty land and construction equipment becoming prominent. It was designed by architects Chamberlin, Powell, and Bon. The City of London launched a competition for the design, for them to commission, of the Golden Estate which later became The Barbican. “Geoffry Powell’s design won the competition in 1952, they set up an architectural practice together to build it, which they called Chamberlin Powell & Bon.” (Barbican Living updated in 2024).  They were heavily influenced by Le Corbusier and the principles of Modernism hence the designers then focused on the use of Brutalist architecture in their own design. By the 1960s, concrete structures began to rise with a focus on high-density housing, cultural institutions, and green spaces. “Building commenced in 1962.” (Concrete Oslo 2018). The estate’s iconic features include the towers (Cromwell, Shakespeare, and Lauderdale) connected by walkways as well as the terraced buildings, which started to take shape and dominated the skyline. “The name of The Barbican comes from the Low Latin word 'Barbecana' which referred to a fortified outpost or gateway: an outer defence of a city or castle or any tower situated over a gate or bridge which was used for defence purposes.” This provides us with a feeling of how The Barbican is portrayed as a rustic, almost fortress-like structure as it has risen from the ashes and became a safe haven for the community. This makes sense considering everything is centralised much like a castle.

Completed Estate (1980s)

The Barbican Estate was completed in the 1980s and it showcased a cohesive Brutalist aesthetic. This included rough, exposed concrete surfaces, geometric shapes, and the integration of water features and green spaces. The Estate also included a variety of public spaces such as The Barbican Centre featuring “theatres, galleries, concert halls and cinemas, plus a large conservatory with over 1,500 species of plants and trees, a library, restaurants, bars, a shop and a picturesque lakeside oasis.” (The City of London website updated in 2023) as well as the communal gardens and elevated walkways known as "podiums," which created a distinct, elevated pedestrian network for both residents and visitors.

Modern Day (2000s - Present)

As of now, The Barbican is filled with greenery, various species of trees, plants and water features that soften the brutalist concrete structures and provide a more inviting atmosphere. Furthermore, the Estate has undergone various restoration and modernisation efforts, including the refurbishment of The Barbican Centre and residential units. These updates maintain the original architecture like the original bathroom and kitchen within more than 2000 of the residential units, while enhancing functionality and comfort so that it is up to modern day standards. 

The Barbican Estate is not just a residential area but a cultural landmark. Its visual identity is marked by the juxtaposition of its Brutalist architecture with lush green spaces, reflecting both its historical significance and contemporary relevance. This has meant that it is now Grade II-listed since September 2001. The 40-acre Estate is home to 4000 residents in more than 2000 flats.

My Own Experience (Visual Analysis)

When I visited The Barbican, I was immediately met with the contrast between the imposing brutalist architecture and vibrant greenery. Approaching the Estate, I noticed the robust concrete buildings rising against the skyline. The distinct texture of the concrete had a rough, unfinished look, which gave the estate a raw presence. However, it still provided a homely feel to it with its overflowing plant life off the sides of balconies and walkways. To explain my experience better I took photos for visual analysis of the estate:

When entering through Fore Street from Moorgate station, you are met at podium height at an elevated pedestrian area which interconnects with various buildings. It was clear that this area next to the riverside was a main hub for visitors. As there are restaurants, shops and cafes located alongside it. Considering the weather was warm it seemed attractive for a day or afternoon out. However, none of these establishments are independent or community-led, with the main food providers being Benugo, which is a large franchise with more than 70 locations; most of them are across London. Although, they are committed to being a sustainable business which supports The Barbican’s ideologies in what they invest in. This links with the eco-brutalist style - to involve nature but also create a sustainable environment.

From the images that I took, there is an obvious amount of lush greenery integrated within its brutalist style as the plants are mixed with the high rise towers and the lower, terraced buildings. Furthermore, the reflectiveness of the water brings in another variety of texture and enhances wellness. This provides a calming atmosphere which is one of the things that can be seen as enjoyable and a reason to visit. This is because it is not only a community space but also somewhere where people can be at peace as it is a glimpse of nature within such a rough, concrete urban landscape.

How Has The Barbican Changed Socio-Economically? 

The Barbican Estate has undergone significant social changes from its design phase to now, as it shows broader changes in urban living, community dynamics, and cultural relevance. Here is an overview of the social changes of The Barbican Estate as it has evolved:

When It Was First Constructed (1960s - 1970s)

The Barbican Estate was part of a post-war vision to gentrify a bombed-out section of London. The goal was to create a high-density residential area that combined living spaces with cultural amenities. Initially, the estate was aimed at working class professionals, particularly those working in the City of London. “The employment of stable, loyal, and pro-family white-collaryoung executives - a middle-class universe founded on corporate culture - living at the Barbican would boost the Corporation’s continued existence.” (Social Endurance at The Barbican Estate by Ana Tostões & Zara Ferreira 2021). The design and amenities aimed towards this demographic as it had an emphasis on providing affordable housing within London and a self-contained community. The Estate was designed to foster a sense of community and did this through features like communal gardens, a residents' club, and various social spaces intended to encourage residents to interact.

Evolving Due To Changes In Demographics

Over the years, the demographic profile of The Barbican has diversified. While it still houses many professionals, as shown by the table above, the mix now includes artists, retirees and a more varied socio-economic group. The table shows that on average the residents earn nearly £10,000 above London’s average annual salary, which indicates that the average resident is a professional. The Barbican Centre has become a major cultural destination, attracting visitors from all over London, UK and beyond. This has increased the estate’s social network, making it a place where residents and non-residents both choose to come to. The increased popularity of The Barbican Centre has also led to more events and activities, such as theatre shows and cinema viewings. When visiting, the theatre show Kiss me, Kate was being held in commemoration of Pride Month. This represents how The Barbican supports all types of communities, not just their own, as they bring inclusivity for everyone. Residents can also be seen participating in cultural activities, which shows their vibrant and engaged community.

Modern Day (2000s - Present)

As of modern day, The Barbican Estate supports a strong sense of community. Residents are actively encouraged to be involved in local associations, social clubs, and gardening groups, as evidenced by the posters and board information in the public library. Community events and meetings are common, which fosters a strong neighbourhood identity. This is evident as in the City of London, only “5.8% of adults” rated their life satisfaction as low. (London Data Store website updated in 2022). 

The population has continued to diversify. The Estate now tries to include young professionals, families, and a growing number of international residents. This diversity is an attempt to enrich the social life of the community, to bring different cultures and perspectives together. However, due to the cost of housing, the majority of the residents are described as a, ”fairly older crowd who live there.” This was explained by an ex-resident on The Barbican Reddit Forum. This supports my argument that with housing costs being close to a million on average in the Estate, the most likely people to be able to afford to live there are those who are retired or successful upper-class professionals. Some do believe that this will change, “with more rentals” (Barbican Reddit Forum April 2024) but currently the residents are an older demographic. The Barbican therefore faces challenges due to these rising property prices and the tension between preserving the Estate’s heritage and modernising its facilities. These issues sometimes create social friction but  it may also lead to active community discussions and involvement in decision-making processes as the residents become stakeholders in the establishment. 

This has meant The Barbican has transitioned from being seen purely as a residential area to being recognised as an iconic part of London's cultural and architectural heritage. This shift has attracted more visitors and media attention, raising the estate’s profile and integrating it further into the broader social and cultural circle of London. This has then changed it from its original purpose of being affordable housing to almost an  attraction for tourists as it is no longer based around those of the working class. Although this makes it a thoroughly thought-out, engaging place to visit.

What Influence Has The Barbican Had On Architecture And Urban Design? 

One of the main influences The Barbican has had, is its prominence into a brutalist aesthetic as it is one of the most well-known examples of brutalist architecture in the world. Its use of raw, exposed concrete, and a large geometric design, has influenced the perception and appreciation of brutalist design; showcasing its potential for creating striking and functional urban spaces. The extensive use of concrete as both a structural and aesthetic element has influenced other architectural projects, emphasising how concrete is both robust and versatile. This is because it is a long-lasting material meaning there is a strong structural integrity much like other examples of brutalist architecture within London such as the South Bank. These buildings are able to be repurposed leaving them as sustainable in the long run.

The Barbican’s design has also influenced urban living due to its self-contained community with residential, commercial, and cultural facilities all within a close proximity to each other. This mixed-use development concept has been adopted in various cities to create vibrant, walkable neighbourhoods. Another example of this would be the 2012 Olympic Park in East London as it uses infrastructure links and close amenities much like The Barbican. The Barbican also uses elevated levelling to its advantage as it separates pedestrian traffic from vehicular traffic. This design has introduced more public safety and still made the architectural design more interesting by it not all being on ground level. The inclusion of significant green spaces and water features within The Barbican has also influenced urban design by highlighting the importance of integrating nature into densely-built environments. This has changed it from not being just a brutalist landmark but also now an eco-brutalist one.

When initially designed, The Barbican demonstrated how high-density housing could be both functional and aesthetically pleasing. Its design has influenced other high-density residential projects, such as Balfron’s Trellick Tower, encouraging architects to explore creative solutions for urban living so that an area can fit not just its intended purpose; it also has an emphasis on communal spaces such as gardens, walkways, and social areas, promoting the idea that a living space should focus around the community as features can enhance the quality of life for residents.

The Barbican Centre’s integration with the residential components of the Estate has influenced the design of other cultural establishments such as new plans for the Museum of London because of the idea that cultural facilities can co-exist and thrive within residential areas and has been replicated in various urban developments. For example, when I visited again in June, the Purple Hibiscus Project was taking place where a Ghanaian artist brought work inspired by her culture to the communal area showing how The Barbican spaces can be adapted for multiple uses; influencing the design of flexible and multifunctional spaces in modern architecture.

The Barbican is often studied in architectural schools as a key example of brutalist architecture and innovative urban planning which is one of the reasons that inspired my research on it. Its design principles continue to inspire new generations of architects. The successful preservation and adaptive re-use of The Barbican’s structures have set a standard in the industry for maintaining and revitalising brutalist buildings. This has encouraged the preservation of architectural styles like brutalism that were once under-appreciated; they have remained relevant.

The Barbican has also inspired international projects as its design has influenced numerous international designs, particularly in terms of integrating residential, cultural, and green spaces. Cities worldwide have drawn inspiration from its comprehensive approach to urban living. Such as in Copenhagen, Denmark, there is an emphasis on sustainability with an environmental focus involving parks and green spaces as well as a want for a high quality of public life. This has meant The Barbican's status has contributed to a broader appreciation of mid-20th-century architectural styles and urban planning as it has inspired architects to explore and reinterpret brutalist principles in contemporary designs fit for 21st century living.

Conclusion

These are the four key things that have impacted The Barbican’s success in improving the living conditions and overall well-being of its residents and visitors:

• The Estate's design, which emerged in response to World War II bombings, has succeeded in creating a functional, distinct urban environment that integrates residential, cultural, and green spaces.
   

• The emphasis on community involvement and cultural activities has fostered a vibrant neighbourhood identity, enhancing the social fabric of the area.
  
  

• The blend of raw concrete and greenery in eco-brutalist architecture has not only contributed to The Estate's unique visual appeal but also promoted sustainability, improving the ecological footprint of the area. This is also because of the energy that the raw concrete holds that adapts to change as a building.
  
  

• The Barbican has generally been well-received, as it balances the harshness of brutalism. This approach has set a standard for future urban regeneration projects, highlighting the importance of considering both aesthetic and social impacts when designing an area.

Overall, The Barbican Estate's success in maintaining relevance after nearly six decades, and its influence on international urban planning, underscore the potential benefits of brutalist and eco-brutalist architecture in contemporary cityscapes. The Estate's ability to provide a high quality of life for its residents and attract numerous visitors demonstrates that the integration of robust design principles with community-oriented spaces can lead to sustainable and thriving urban environments. Future developments should draw inspiration from The Barbican, ensuring that regeneration continues to prioritise both the physical characteristics and psychological well-being of all stakeholders involved.

Bibliography

1. The book Concrete Oslo Eds. Erik Fenstad Langdalen, Andrea Pinochet, Léa-Catherine Szacka, pp. 226-250 essay by Eva Branscome Protecting the Brute: The Barbican Estate 2018.

2. Outlier labelling rule https://www.jstor.org/stable/2289392 - David C. Hoaglin and Boris Iglewicz published in the Journal of the American Statistical Association Vol. 82, No. 400 (Dec., 1987), pp. 1147-1149 (3 pages). Published By: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.

3. https://www.ons.gov.uk/census/maps/choropleth/population/age/resident-age-3a/aged-16-to-64-years?msoa=E02000001 - Census data of the average age of people in the City of London.

4. Brutalism - RIBA https://www.architecture.com/explore-architecture/
   brutalism. Considering RIBA and ARB are the largest architecture organisations in the UK, citing it as a source means it is unlikely to have bias and therefore also remains as relevant information.

5. The newspaper article Concrete Poetry published by The Critics, February 2012.

6. Jay Scotts Collection https://jayscotts.com/blog/brutalism-with-plants - Jay Scott’s is a plant provider which ties in with the use of greenery and an improvement to an ecological footprint.

7. The book Robin Hood Gardens and the rehabilitation of post-war mass housing in London by Aranzazu Melon, 2011.

8. Residents - Barbican https://www.barbican.org.uk. Considering this is the official Barbican website, it means that this statistic is probably gained from census data meaning it is accurate and relevant.

9. https://maps.app.goo.gl/9TRzaeydRi86EBf87 - Google Maps view of The Barbican and its surrounding areas.

10. https://www.barbican.org.uk/s/barbicanfacts - A cost analysis from The Barbican website.

11.  https://www.architecture.com/explore-architecture/modernism - RIBA’s definition of modernism.

12.  https://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/things-to-do/architecture/city-churches-
    and-religious-buildings/st-giles-cripplegate - Research from the Museum of London posted by the City of London website.

13. The book Garden Cities of To-Morrow by Ebenezer Howard, 1898.

14. The article Middle-Class Castle by Logan Nash, 2013.

15. https://www.barbicanliving.co.uk/barbican-story/the-architects/chamberlin-powell-bon/ - An explanation of how the designers were chosen.

16. The book Concrete Oslo Eds. Erik Fenstad Langdalen, Andrea Pinochet, Léa-Catherine Szacka, pp. 226-250 essay by Eva Branscome Protecting the Brute: The Barbican Estate 2018.

17. Barbican meaning - https://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/services/barbican-
    estate/barbican-estate-history - A definition from the City of London’s introduction to The Barbican.

18. https://www.thecityofldn.com/directory/barbican-centre/ - The City of London’s explanation of The Barbican Centre.

19. Benugo website - https://www.benugo.com/our-story/sustainability/
    
    

20. The article Social Endurance at The Barbican Estate by Ana Tostões & Zara Ferreira, October 2021.

21. https://www.nomisweb.co.uk/ - Nomis annual survey of hours and earnings - resident analysis.

22. Theatre show Kiss me, Kate - https://www.barbican.org.uk/whats-on/2024/
    event/kiss-me-kate 

23. https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/wellbeing/articles/ukmeasuresofnationalwellbeing/dashboard - Census data shown by the Office for National Statistics.

24. https://landregistry.data.gov.uk/app/ppd/ - HM Land Registry Price Paid Dataset (PPD).
    
    

25. A London Reddit page with a subsection on The Barbican area - https://www.reddit.com/r/london/comments/1bxf1nj/anybody_who_lives_
    in_the_barbican_estate_can_you/ 

26. https://www.barbican.org.uk/whats-on/2024/event/ibrahim-mahama-purple-hibiscus - The Purple Hibiscus Project by Ibrahim Mahama.